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Regulations for building Nuclear Power Plants.

=Control The Nuclear Power Plant (Demonstration)= by **Henrik Eriksson** The control-room operators of the Kärnobyl nuclear power plant are telecommuting and are running the plant through the Web. However, the mean time between failure for the components of Kärnobyl is not great. Try to keep the reactor stable when component failures occur! (Click [|here] for instructions.)

Use sequence buttons 1-3 to run a failure-simulation sequence. The randomize button starts a random failure sequence. When a simulation sequence is running, you can control the state of valves and pumps by clicking on them. The moderator rods in the reactor can be moved by mouse dragging them. [|http://www.ida.liu.se/~her/npp/demo.html]



For people who believe in global warming, nuclear energy helps get rid of global CO2 admissions.









nuclear power plants do not pollute the air with nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, dust or greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.

In France for example, from 1980 to 1986, SO2 and NOX emissions in the electric power sector were reduced by 71% and 60% respectively, causing reductions of 56% and 9% respectively, in total SO2 and NOX emissions in France

Another important benefit that nuclear generated energy has on our environment is that the wastes produced are completely isolated from the environment. Would we have produced the electricity with coal instead of nuclear energy, at least 90,000 tons of toxic heavy metals would have been released, in addition to tremendous amounts of CO2, SO2, and NOx. Some of these toxic heavy metals include arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Although the radioactive wastes produced by nuclear energy may be dangerous for thousands of years, part of the waste caused by the burning of coal remains dangerous forever. The environmental benefits of nuclear energy can he seen clearly in France. In the 1980s, because of concerns over imported oil, France more than tripled its nuclear energy production. During that same period, total pollution from the French electric power system dropped by 80-90 percent.

Nuclear Waste Disposal: Low-level waste is a byproduct of the beneficial uses of a wide range of radioactive materials. These include electricity generation, medical diagnosis and treatment, and various other medical processes.

Facts on Low-level Waste: http://www.nei.org/keyissues/nuclearwastedisposal/factsheets/disposallowlevelradioactivewaste/

Where It Comes From
Low-level radioactive waste is a byproduct of the beneficial uses of a wide range of radioactive materials. These uses include electricity generation, medical diagnosis and treatment, biomedical and pharmaceutical research, and manufacturing**.** Low-level waste produced at nuclear power plants consists of water purification filters and resins, tools, protective clothing and plant hardware, such as steam generators. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has classified low-level waste in three categories. Class A—the lowest hazard—comprises 95 percent of low-level waste. Classes B and C represent greater potential hazards, but nonetheless are safely managed. The NRC and the states govern the siting, operation and closure of all low-level waste disposal facilities.

Disposal in Licensed Facilities

 * Facility Design**Low-level waste disposal facilities isolate material from people and the environment in various ways. Among facility designs are: modular concrete canisters, underground vaults, aboveground vaults or engineered berms, or earth-mounded concrete bunkers. The disposal sites are diligently monitored to ensure that they comply with NRC requirements. **Three Facilities Operating**There are three NRC licensed low-level waste disposal facilities in the United States. One, the Hanford site in Richland, Wash., accepts waste from the Northwest and Rocky Mountain regions. The second facility, in Barnwell, S.C., accepts waste from all regions but the Northwest and Rocky Mountain regions. However, beginning in 2008, the Barnwell facility will accept waste only from the states of Connecticut, New Jersey and South Carolina. Both Hanford and Barnwell are licensed to accept Classes A, B and C waste. The third facility, Envirocare, in Clive, Utah, opened in 1995 and is licensed to accept only Class A waste. **Shipping Containers**Low-level waste is shipped to disposal facilities in containers designed to meet stringent NRC and U.S. Department of Transportation standards. No injuries or deaths have ever been caused by a release from low-level radioactive waste in a transportation accident.

Credit: Nuclear Energy Institute

Strong Safety Record
Used nuclear fuel consists of ceramic pellets encased in metal tubes. The fuel cannot explode, and the massive containers in which it is transported can protect public health and the environment even if subjected to the highest temperatures seen in transportation accidents involving chemicals or other flammable materials. After extensive studies, both the [|U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission] and the [|National Academy of Sciences] concluded that used nuclear fuel can be transported safely. The nuclear energy industry has completed more than 3,000 shipments of used nuclear fuel over 1.7 million miles of U.S. highways and railroads. Over this period, fuel containers were involved in just eight accidents, and no radiation was released. These shipments include used nuclear fuel shipped back to manufacturers or research facilities.

Fun Facts: http://www.nei.org/keyissues/nuclearwastedisposal/factsheets/transportationofusednuclearfuel http://www.nei.org/keyissues/nuclearwastedisposal/factsheets/transportingradioactivematerials/

Credit: Nuclear Energy Institute

Federal Regulation
**Shipping Containers** The [|NRC regulates container design and manufacturing] to ensure that the containers maintain their integrity under routine transportation conditions and during severe accidents. The NRC must certify all container designs.

Containers must be able to withstand a sequence of crashes, fire and submersion in water without breaking open. The approved containers are massive, weighing 25 to 40 tons for truck shipments and 75 to 125 tons for rail shipments. Multiple layers of steel and other materials confine the radioactivity. Typically, for every ton of fuel, there are more than three tons of protective shielding. **Routing**Used nuclear fuel may be shipped only along specified highway routes. Shippers submit routes to the NRC for approval ahead of time and notify officials in the states through which the shipments travel. The NRC checks that a route conforms to Transportation Department regulations, requiring the most direct interstate route and avoiding large cities.
 * Railway Use**The U.S. Department of Energy plans to use rail for most of the shipments of used nuclear fuel to a Yucca Mountain repository. However, some shipments will require transport by road if rail is not accessible. For rail transport, DOE will use trains that will carry only used nuclear fuel. These dedicated trains offer increased security and shorter transit times.

Credit: Nuclear Energy Institute